Fiduciary Duty’s Paradox Incrementally Flexible Essay Example

Fiduciary Duty’s Paradox: Incrementally Flexible Paper The above section has demonstrated that the uncertainty surrounding pension funds’ obligations with respect to non-financial factors in investment decision-making presents a practical barrier to consideration of environmental factors, including climate change, in both the US and UK context. It is clear that part of the problem is the lack of both current case law and consistent legislative commentary on the topic. However, the problem runs deeper than that – it is tied to the nature of fiduciary duty itself. This subsection examines what it is about fiduciary duty that makes it ill suited to adapt to changing social circumstances in anything other than an incremental manner. The urgent nature of climate change makes this situation all the more poignant. Fiduciary duty is a ramshackle concept. In early case law it arose, organically, out of certain relationships of trust. Whether a particular relationship was fiduciary, and what duty it entailed, was often difficult to predict. Indeed, it is difficult to escape the perception that in early times the finding of fiduciary duty, and its content, was rather arbitrary. The preceding sub-sections have demonstrated that although the nature of pension fund fiduciary duty has been clarified in both the US and the UK by successive pieces of legislation, uncertainties remain, particularly with respect to non-financial factors in investment decisions. And, as Langbein has argued, elements of the duty continue to evolve, both through legislation and through curial interpretation. In short, pension fund fiduciary duty remains, to an extent, ‘a concept in search of principle’. We will write a custom essay sample on Fiduciary Duty’s Paradox: Incrementally Flexible specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Fiduciary Duty’s Paradox: Incrementally Flexible specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Fiduciary Duty’s Paradox: Incrementally Flexible specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In order to deal with the changing social and environmental realities associated with climate change, fiduciary duty must be able to accommodate certain investment innovations – in particular to allow the explicit consideration of the risks and opportunities associated with climate change. It must be able to recognise the increasingly financial implications of climate change, as legislation (e.g. on emissions trading) and markets are gradually doing. However, this subsection argues that while this type of innovation in fiduciary duty is possible, without legislative change it will be incremental – and too slow to meet the urgent changes required by climate change. This subsection explores the paradoxical nature of fiduciary duty with respect to investment innovation: the duty can evolve – history has seen it adapt to emerging social expectations – but the tendency for courts to judge fiduciaries’ prudence by reference to existing investment norms means that any innovation in investment is bound to be incremental – any change in fiduciary duty must fight against considerable inertia. As a result, while the past flexibility of fiduciary duty suggests that the investment innovation of the risks and opportunities presented by climate change is acceptable in theory, the past also suggests that innovation in the courts (that is, absent legislation) is incremental. Change, when introduced too quickly, has been equated by courts with imprudence in the past. The following subsections visit fiduciary duty’s incrementally adaptable nature, showing how it has adapted to evolving financial and social norms in the past, bu t also discussing its tendency toward inertia. The final subsection discusses what the nature of fiduciary duty means for pension funds’ attitudes toward climate change. Adapting to Changing Social Expectations (both Financial and Non-Financial) Fiduciary duty in an investment context has adapted slowly to changing social expectations about finance over the years. If we trace the development of trustees’ fiduciary duty since Victorian times, the change in expectations of investment is striking. In the 18th and 19th centuries, English law took a prescriptive, risk-averse approach to the investment of trust funds. In Learoyd v Whitely Watson LJ explained the principle as follows Business men of ordinary prudence may, and frequently do, select investments which are more or less of a speculative character; but it is the duty of the trustee to confine himself to the class of investments which are permitted by the trust and likewise to avoid all investments of that class which are attended with hazard. According to John Langbein, early English legal attitudes toward investment of trust funds were deeply affected by the South Sea Bubble: in 1719, Parliament allowed trustees to invest in the South Sea Company, whose shares promptly dropped by 90 percent. In the aftermath, the chastened Parliament instigated a conservative approach to investment of trust funds that began with the Bubble Act (1719) and would not disappear completely until the Trustee Act (2000). Under this risk-averse approach, trustees were only permitted to invest in assets specifically authorised in legislation. These generally included consolidated bank annuities, gilts and mortgages of real property. The prescriptive nature of these legislative lists was gradually relaxed over time: under the Trustee Investment Act 1961, trust funds were required to be divided into ‘narrower range’ and ‘wider range’ investments, with wider range investments including UK securities and some shares. It was not until the repeal of the 1961 Act with the Trustee Act 2000 that the prescriptive approach to investment disappeared from English legislation, allowing trustees to invest in any asset class. The law with respect to investment of trust funds in the US followed a similar trajectory. US law inherited the English system of prescribing suitable investments for trustees in Victorian times. It began to move away from the prescriptive approach with the seminal case, Harvard v Amory, which introduced the classic US statement of the more flexible prudent man test: All that can be required of a trustee to invest, is, that he shall conduct himself faithfully and exercise a sound discretion. He is to observe how men of prudence, discretion and intelligence manage their own affairs, not in regard to speculation, but in regard to the permanent disposition of their funds, considering the probable income, as well as the probable safety of the capital to be invested. While there was some resurgence of the process of requiring trustees to invest only in assets included on a ‘legal list’ of investment options for trustees following the New York case, King v Talbot, legislative initiatives gradually broadened trustees’ investment opportunities throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. In particular, the advent of modern portfolio theory in the 1940s led to the legislative introduction of the modern prudent investor rule. The large amount of legislative change regarding the investment of trust funds in the US is testament to the flexibility of fiduciary duty. As Langbein notes the trust of today bears only a distant relationship to the trust of former centuries. The trust that we know is mainly a creature of the 20th Century; accordingly, common law processes of incrementalism were no more suitable for today’s trust law than for the regulation of nuclear power plants. Today, under the modern prudent investor rule, trustees in the US may invest in any asset that is appropriate to the fund portfolio, taking into account the risk and return objectives of the trust and its beneficiaries. The need for fiduciary duty to entertain new social and economic expectations surrounding investment was such that its adaption had to be facilitated by legislation. In this light, the past flexibility of fiduciary duty with respect to the investment of trust funds is demonstrated by its rapid adaptation to new financial standards. The potential for fiduciary duty to adapt to new investment approaches is therefore clear. Taking these points one step further, the next paragraphs argue that fiduciary duty also has the flexibility to adopt a broader view of investment by allowing the consideration of certain non-financial issues in investment decision-making. Changing societal expectations have affected fiduciary duty’s approach to investment in subtler ways than risk averseness. Fiduciary duty has had the flexibility to evolve with respect to non-financial factors in trustee decision-making in the context of changing attitudes toward women in the work place. Although dealing with trustees of a council rather than those of a pension fund, Roberts v Hopwood provides a vibrant illustration of how fiduciary duty can evolve in a social context. In this case, a local authority used its powers under statute to increase wages for its workers to above the national average and to pay men and women equally. The district auditor found that the council’s wage increase was unreasonable and ordered its reversal. The council appealed and the case progressed to the House of Lords. The House of Lords found that the council had breached its fiduciary duty by aiming to be a model employer instead of paying the minimum wage. Atkinson LJ stated that the council would, in my view, fail in their duty if, in administering funds which did not belong to their members alone, they put aside [minimum wage indicators] and allowed themselves to be guided in preference by some eccentric principles of socialistic philanthropy, or by a feminist ambition to secure the equality of the sexes in the matter of wages in the world of labour. Atkinson LJ regarded the council’s decision to increase wages for both men and women as a symptom of ‘the vanity of appearing as model employers of labour’ and of the council becoming ‘such ardent feminists as to bring about, at the expense of the ratepayers whose money they administered, sex equality in the labour market.’ In this case, the council’s consideration of non-financial factors in determining how to invest ratepayers’ money was found to violate its fiduciary duty to ratepayers. With the growth of the anti-discrimination movement throughout the 20th Century, the decision to grant wage parity between sexes no longer appears to be the fanciful indulgence of ‘some eccentric principles of socialistic philanthropy.’ Some sixty years later, in Pickwell v Camden London Borough Council,   the Court affirmed the fiduciary duty of a council to its ratepayers, but also noted the council’s entitlement to ensure the welfare of its workers, stating that the council ‘must therefore often be involved in balancing fairly these interests which may frequently conflict.’ The Court referred to the decision of the House of Lords in Roberts v Hopwood and said looking back, as we do, over 60 years of progress in the field of social reform and industrial relations some of their Lordships observations may, with the benefit of this hindsight, appear unsympathetic what has changed over those years is our attitudes to what should be regarded as pure philanthropy. In other words, whereas wage parity was once seen as philanthropy, it is now seen as a legitimate consideration potentially consistent with fiduciary duty. The Court’s comments with respect to Roberts v Hopwood indicate an acknowledgment of the flexibility of fiduciary duty to yield in accordance with evolving social forces as well as commercial forces. The development of fiduciary duty here was ancillary to the commercial context: just as the duty has adapted to evolving expectations in the investment context, it has also adapted to admit considerations once considered to be non-financial. It is therefore possible that fiduciary duty could adapt to changing social expectations about the environment, and in particular climate change. It is important to remember that fiduciary duty, no matter how immutable it appears to be at a single moment in time, is and always will be the object of interpretation; how it will be interpreted will vary with evolving investment and social stan dards. It is the rate of its evolution that is uncertain, an idea that is discussed below. Inherent Inertia: Prudence tends toward the status quo While the content of fiduciary duty clearly can evolve over time, change is often slow. It took more than 250 years for the investment conservatism engendered by the South Sea Bubble to give way to the concept of diversified investment portfolios. In particular, the law lagged significantly behind the finance industry (and, it must be said, financial reality) in adopting modern portfolio theory. It is argued here that legal inertia with respect to fiduciary duty and pension fund investment is linked to the prudent man standard. What is prudence? According to the UK Pensions Regulator, ‘[p]rudence is difficult to define in general terms and will apply differently to different circumstances.’ Prudence is so difficult to define precisely because it is circumstantial. When judges are faced with deciding whether a particular trustee’s decision was prudent, both US and UK law requires them to look at what other trustees in a similar position would do – they must look to the conventional behaviour in the pension fund industry. In 2000, Hawley and Williams argued that ‘the safest course of action for a professional owner is to take only those actions generally accepted as prudent – which historically has led institutions to adopt a conservative view of their responsibilities as owners.’ The prudent course of action in this light becomes the status quo, slowing innovation in investment decision-making. Therefore although fiduciary duty in the investment context is flexi ble, it is, paradoxically, susceptible to significant inertia. This is of great consequence for pension fund trustees, as it reinforces pre-existing behavioural biases within the industry (this problem is discussed in section IV below). This inertia comes from several quarters: legislation, incremental judicial interpretation, and through the behaviour of the pension fund industry itself. In the US, a formula urging fiduciaries to perpetuate the status quo in investment behaviour is built into the modern prudent investor rule. Under the rule as it is formulated in ERISA, trust funds must be managed ‘with the care, skill, prudence, and diligence under the circumstances then prevailing that a prudent man acting in a like capacity and familiar with such matters would use in the conduct of an enterprise of a like character and with like aims.’ When determining how a prudent man in an investment context might act, it seems logical that investors should look to the investment behaviour of their peers – or at least to the behaviour of their peers that has not attracted criticism for imprudent investment. Fiduciaries are therefore encouraged to base their investment judgements essentially upon the prevailing investment conventions at any one time. In the UK, a trustee must manage the trust in the same manner as an ordinary prudent man of business would conduct his own affairs. Professional trustees and asset managers professing to have special fund management skills have a higher standard of care. The standard of care for both professional and other trustees is, like the US standard, self-referential. The prudence standard is once again associated with what other investors do. As such, UK pension fund trustees are expected to associate prudence with a conventional approach to investment. A preference for maintaining the status quo in investment behaviour can be seen in the historical reluctance of many courts to accept modern portfolio investment as prudent. Prior to the introduction of the modern prudent investor rule, courts across the UK and US legal world required fiduciaries to be able to demonstrate that each individual investment is ‘prudent’ – any single investment failure could amount to imprudence on the part of the fiduciary. This legal stance resulted in risk-averse decisions by pension fund trustees, but also in returns that were significantly lower than they could have been. The introduction of the US modern prudent investor rule, and its equivalent diversification rule in the UK, allowed fiduciaries to make investments that were more beneficial for the beneficiaries. The ability of pension funds to adapt to the realities of climate change are similarly restrained by the prudence standard’s hostility to anything other than inc remental change. Judicial interpretation of the standard of prudence presents a further pressure on trustees to invest according to the convention of their day. Fratcher points out that there is a tendency on the part of the courts even in the absence of a statute to lay down definite subsidiary rules on what is and what is not a prudent investment. When a certain investment is held in one case to be improper, the courts are likely to treat the case as a precedent holding that no investment of that type is proper. It is this tendency that has made palpable the fear of pension fiduciaries of considering factors traditionally seen as non-financial in investment decision-making; it is this tendency that allowed the judgment in Cowan v Scargill to grow to the (undeservedly) legendary proportions it has reached. In the US, the testimony of experts in financial affairs is usually admissible for determining whether a fiduciary has acted prudently.346 This self-referential feature is likely to propagate conventional wisdom, rather than to encourage trustees to innovate. The practical consequence of requiring investors to base their actions on the actions of their peers is that the status quo tends to prevail. For this reason, Keith Johnson and Frank Jan de Graf have described the prudence standard as a ‘lemming standard’. In their view, ‘pension funds are often reluctant to pursue prudent strategies not being widely used by other pension funds for fear of exposure to liability’. In circumstances such as the present, where investors are typically driven by short-term performance, prudent investment becomes short-term investment. The situation in the UK is similar. A report published by the UK Department of Social Security in 1997 used in-depth interviews with trustees of 48 selfadministered private sector occupational pension schemes to examine trustee investment practice. The report found that the main objective for trustees in administering their funds was to provide a good return on assets, and that trustees sought to achieve this aim by ‘appointing expert advisers and fund managers with successful track records and monitoring their performance; adopting what they perceive as cautious investment policies; and providing guidelines and benchmarks for fund managers for investing schemes’ assets.’ In the UK, trustees who are unsure of their duty may take advice from experts, including those within the finance industry. There have been some moves made toward encouraging pension fund trustees to act independently of their peers if their fund is different to the norm. In 1990, the Committee of Enquiry Report into Investment Performance Measurement recommended that ‘trustees should consider whether their own fund has special characteristics which indicate that it should be invested differently from the generality of funds.’ However, this does nothing to encourage innovation in a fund which does not have ‘special characteristics’. The Outcome for Climate Change The evolution of fiduciary duty, from restricting investment to specific low-risk categories until the second half of the 20th Century to embracing the modern prudent investor rule, reflects a change in social attitudes toward investment. Statutes in both the UK and the US are helping to keep fiduciary duty up to date – this is particularly true of the statutory shift from prescriptive lists of investment options for fiduciaries toward the modern prudent investor rule. However, even the statutory developments of the last two decades are insufficient to enable pension funds to move toward a more sustainable investment paradigm. The incrementalism central to the maturation of fiduciary duty in the past cannot facilitate the urgent action required by climate change. Nor does it, more importantly, encourage a deep philosophical change of the kind necessary to look at the long-term sustainability of investments. An aggravating factor exists here in the question of whether, and to what extent, a court would consider an explicit reference to climate change in an investment strategy as a ‘non-financial’ issue. Until such a case is heard, or relevant legislation enacted, it will be difficult to displace fiduciaries’ anxiety with respect to the appropriateness of attention to the complex web of issues surrounding climate change in the context of investment decision-making. It is reasonable to predict that courts will decide by reference to convention: if most pension funds view climate change as a non-financial issue, then courts are likely to see this position as the prudent one. While almost all governments and major companies around the world now see climate change as a financial issue, as well as an environmental and social one, few pension funds have demonstrated this view. In a way, therefore, pension fund inaction on climate change is likely also to be self-perpetuating without legislative clarification. There is no intrinsic reason for fiduciary duty to prevent pension funds from adopting a forward-looking approach to investment that includes the consideration of factors (such as the risks and opportunities associated with climate change) which are coming to be recognised as financial but which have not traditionally informed investment decisions. In theory, fiduciary duty should adapt to new economic realities engendered by climate change, but change is likely to be incremental (just as it was with respect to modern portfolio theory and equal opportunity in the past). Left up to pension fund trustees and courts, it is likely that the concept of prudence will lag behind as legislative changes correct the market failures of climate change. In practice, the tendency for prudent behaviour to be equated with conventional behaviour means that most pension funds will not move beyond the status quo in terms of investment strategy. Pension fund trustee caution with respect to uncharted financial territory is not surprising, given the uncertainty surrounding fiduciary duty. However, the focus of pension fund trustees on fiduciary duty as the main reason for eschewing change in investment approach obscures significant behavioural impediments to sustainable investment: ingrained short-termism regarding both financial performance and environmental impact, and institutional inertia. These impediments, when combined with the prudence standard’s constant reference to the status quo, create a collective action problem: in order for climate change to become an accepted consideration for pension fund trustees, a group of trustees must act in unison. Next Page   Ingrained Inertia, Short-Termism and Collective Inaction Previous Page   Pension Fund Fiduciary Duty and Non-Financial Considerations

MK Syllabus Essays

MK Syllabus Essays MK Syllabus Essay MK Syllabus Essay Class participation enriches the quality of the learning experience. Students are strongly encouraged to add to the discussions. Your ability to verbally communicate is critical to your future as a businessperson. I hope to develop this skill in the classroom. Our discussion enables me to assess how well I have communicated a point. It also allows me to assess your level of preparation for a lecture topic. If, I have evidence that you have not prepared, I reserve the right to assess you formally in a quiz format. On-time attendance is required. A daily role will be taken 5 minutes after class part be calculated from your attendance. If, you miss 6 classes you will get zero participation grade. If you miss 8 classes you will fail the course. Cell phones should be turned off. Use off cell phone during class will carry a 2% overall grade penalty per occurrence. There is a short case attached to each topic. There are 3 or 4 questions with each case. You need to read and analyze the case and answer the questions. The responses will be posted on the discussion board locations designed for the case. I will grade the case answers that you have submitted. EXAMS There will be 5 exams this semester. Each exam will cover the material leading up to the exam. The exams will be given in class and will be essay short answer. Alternatively, exams may be given via Angel. There will be a comprehensive final exam of the same format as the 5 semester exams. This exam material will cover everything taught during the semester. After you have completed the case discussion and studied the case and material associated with the case you will take a short quiz which tests your ability to apply the case material and general knowledge of the case. You will answer 5 multiple choice questions and scores will be recorded in the grade book.Teaching and learning is a partnership between faculty and students. I will fulfill my partnership obligations by being prepared for every class, serving as an advisor, insulate, mentor and providing clarifications of difficult or confusing concepts. You will fulfill your partnership obligations by being prepared for each class quiz and discussion and being fully participative, responsive, working team member of the class. The exams and discussion board all play an important role in your education in this course. They are an essential part of the learning process in that they require the synthesis and extension of concepts. They also help both the student and the indicates that generally the course material cannot be adequately mastered without active involvement on your part.

Blog Spot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Blog Spot - Essay Example Iraq was then supposedly occupied by the Americans with the initial purpose of ensuring peace, progress, and modernity there and rescuing the public of Iraq from heavy influence exercised by the rigid and exacting government. It is my argument that though America presented many justifiable reasons for invading Iraq, the deteriorating condition of Iraq and the helpless condition of the American troops patrolling there have collectively imposed such a heavy burden on the economy of America that millions of families are getting badly affected owing to this purposeless war while not meeting the criteria given by the hawks. Proponents of the invasion of Iraq had a few primary justifications. There were fears that Saddam Hussein was developing WMDs. There was concern that he had been connected to al Qaeda cells (Rumsfeld, 2009). And, of course, he was a brutal dictator. One problem was that they kept offering different justifications, saying that one was central one day and the other the next, but the case did look compelling initially. They also claimed UN Security Council support. Some had messianic justifications: Falwell also argues that the Iraq war is justifiable and was indeed initiated by God’s will and authority (2004). Meanwhile, opponents said that the war was illegal. The UN Charter makes it illegal for countries to unilaterally invade other countries, no matter what other Resolutions are on the table. The Security Council had not acted, so it was illegal. They argued that the war would lead to more terrorism, a claim that seemed to become compelling in the aftermath of the invasion as suicide bombings began in a country that did not have them prior. They also argued that Saddam Hussein had no WMDs, which was hard to tell at the time but became prescient when it was discovered that he didnt. They argued that the invasion could lead to looting of WMDs, and that the invasion was mostly about securing oil and resources for

Historical Context of One Nation under God (1993) Movie and Era for Essay

Historical Context of One Nation under God (1993) Movie and Era for the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement - Essay Example The proliferation of gay activism and same sex marriage debates that have dominated in media and political discussions in recent years have had a long standing history that dates several decades ago, when the wider society was still intolerant not only to the practice, but also to the idea of homosexuality. Fundamentalist religious groups such as Exodus International and moralists have never relented in their battles to rid society off this widespread social affliction that is homophobic sexual orientations, and have made sincere efforts to condemn the practice as a sin, and to restore individuals back to heterosexuality through curative therapies. This paper examines the themes highlighted in the documentary film One Nation under God of 1993 that was co-directed and co-produced by Teodoro Maniaci and Francine Rzeznik, both within the historical context in which it was created and within the documentary style it represents. The 1993 era provides both a historical context and a politi cal perspective of the gay rights movement back in time, when both the ex-gay movements and the religious right were equally gaining strength1. This period is very significant in the history of the gay rights movement because it marked a great check-in point for the current homosexuality tolerance and recognition of gay rights in the American society. Simply put, this period had a lot to do with the recent developments in the gay rights movement in the current era where some states have already ratified gay marriages; additionally, the federal government has recognized the union for tax reasons and issued a ban on ex-gay therapies that pervaded the ‘90s. One Nation under God (1993) documentary film highlights the pervasive confusion of male effeminacy and female masculinity with homosexuality in the perceptions of the two leading groups that were attempting to restore homosexuals to a more befitting place in society. The debates of the ex-gay movement feature prominently in a large portion of the movie, with interviews of the movement’s leaders such as Young, who was not only a transsexual, but also a homosexual with a history of sexual trauma, and Exodus International’s president. The documentary also features interviews of the main features Michael Bussee and Gary Cooper and their relationship, as well as fundamentalist Christian leaders, and psychiatrists who favored both sides of the debate in addition to, other ex-gays, and former ex-gays who fell on either sides of the debate too. The 1990’s era was pervaded by religious right wing proliferation of curative therapies for homosexuals2; today, this era gives an impressionable perspective of gay relations in the annals of history. The opening of the documentary presents off-the-street perspectives of homosexuality through interviews that reveal harsh oppositions to the practice due to its contravention of religious beliefs and societal morals. Interestingly, even in what would hav e been the most liberal places like New York City, a large proportion of people express bitter resentments towards homosexuality by condemning the practice as a sin and asking homosexuals to repent, thus indicating the high intolerance towards gays that pervaded America society back then. This documentary film was a resounding work at that point in time, due to the significance of its subject matter; the early 1990’s remain to be a significant point in the history of gay rights activism. AIDS had thwarted campaigns for gay rights and the gay political progress thoroughly in the ‘80s, resulting to a military ban on gays; this military ban resulted challenges to the subsequent

Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business - Essay Example A Lack of Graduate Engineers in Britain In Britain, more students were getting involved in management studies and very few started opting engineering. This resulted in lesser engineers with a graduate degree which further halted the manufacturing industry. Over-Diversification Resulting in Short Production Runs The diversification of products led to a decline as there were more products but lesser machinery. Therefore the need to meet the demand of all the products led to short production runs for different products which resulted in a shortage. This greatly affected the machine tool industry of UK. A General Lack of Automation and Computer Application UK’s machine tool industry lacked in technology compared to other countries. The manufacturing process took more time and was dependent on work to be done manually. This also meant that there was not much use of computer applications which usually enhance the work. A Vicious Circle of Decline Resulting in a Lack of Investment Th e whole economy of UK was in decline which meant that investors were not willing to invest in businesses or the manufacturing firms. This meant that the traditional means of businesses could not be modified for benefits. Poor Marketing The manufacturing firms were not able to market their products effectively which meant that the consumers were not attracted to the products. The ads which were used were part of mass marketing and no segments had been made. This limited the understanding of individuals or a group of consumers which made marketing much more difficult for the firms in terms of consumer attraction. Low-Volume Production at High Cost The firms produced lesser products and the cost that was associated was high. This resulted in the bankruptcy of the firms and they were not able to cope with the requirements of their manufacturing process. This further limited their efforts and thus resulted in a decline of machine tool industry. Answer 1b The factors resulted in a massive decline for the UK machine tool industry as the general decline meant that it was happening in the whole of Britain. This meant that there were very little chances for a particular industry to prosper. The threat from Japan and Germany meant that more investments were needed to compete as people were finding their products more convenient and reliable compared to UKs. The lack of graduate engineers meant that the existing technology could not be developed as much as when it could have been with more engineers. The over-diversification of products meant that time had to be given to the manufacturing of all different products which limited the time given to the manufacturing of a particular product. The lack of automation meant that more work was done manually which took time compared to work done using machines. The lacking of the use of computer applications also meant that the industries were not advancing with technology like the other nations. The decline in the economy resulted in the lack of investments, therefore, the companies had no quick more to modify and enhance their businesses. The poor marketing efforts did not attract consumers which increased imports as products of other countries were more attractive to local consumers. The production by these manufacturing firms was at high cost but in low quantity. This meant that industries had more expenses compared to

Theories Of Grameen Bank Founder Professor Muhammad Yunus

Theories Of Grameen Bank Founder Professor Muhammad Yunus Microfinance is the provision of financial services by certain institutions known as MFIs such as Cooperative Banks, Community Based-Saving Bank, Credit Unions, development bank to the poor, low income earners, self-employed and small businesses design to address to address issues of poverty. According to MIX in June 2010 there was more than 1800 MFIs in over 100 countries, with 92.4 millions borrowers and 78.5 millions savers in the developing world. The concept of microfinance was created by Professor Muhammad Yunus founder of Grameen bank in Bangladesh. Microfinance includes a range of services such as microcredit, saving, insurance and funds transfer. Traditional banks do not provide facilities to low income earners; they provide services to people after assessing the profile of clients according to certain criteria such as pay, credit history and assets of the clients. According to Hernando De Soto (1989) a Peruvian economist poor people have no assets to provide as collateral t o bank when taking a loan, therefore they are not liable to receive loans from banks. Since poor people do not have access to traditional banks they have to lend money with high interest rates from others sources such as pawnbroker and local money lender sometimes with 100% interest rate as borrowing from them is fast and flexible. Over the last 30 years MFIs have developed new methods with less collateral to offer small loans to low income earners and has grown rapidly in Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe and Latin America where there were few bank infrastructures and where in some cases more than 80 % of the population did not have a bank account. According to CGAP (2008), MFIs are funded by 33 donors of 21 investors such as DFI. Microfinance offers permanent financial facilities for education, health, personal emergencies, disasters, investment opportunities to the poor and it is used as a development tool. MFIs begin as non-profit organization increasingly they are now evolving as profit entities because MFIs are required to have a banking license for saving services. Some MFIs offers non-financial facilities such as health services and business development. In this review we will analyze and see how microfinance contributes to the economic development of a country and the review will be focused on creation of e mployment and the empowerment of women by microfinance. 2.1.1 Professor Muhammad Yunus Theoretical review The concept of microfinance was created by Professor Muhammad Yunus founder of Grameen bank in Bangladesh and noble price winner in 2006.He receives 76 other awards in different countries for his work. Professor Yunus obtainded a doctorate in Economics from Vanderbilt University found in Nashville, Tennessee in the United States. During the famine of 1974 in Bangladesh Professor Muhammad Yunus minor loans of USD27 to 42 poor families for them to buy and sell small articles to allow them to earn a living. The objective behind the loan was to reduce poverty in Bangladesh. Grameen bank was an idea generated by Professor Yunus the bank started as a project at the University of Chittagong as a pilot test to find different ways of providing credit to the poor in the rural area. The Grameen bank offered its services to a village named Jobra near the university; the project was successful and had the support of Bangladesh central bank in 1979. The bank extends its services to Tangail district and to other areas of Bangladesh. In 1983 the Bangladesh Government turns the project into an independent bank and Professor Yunus had a grant from the Ford foundation to incorporate Grameen bank with the support of two bankers namely Mary Houghton and Ron Grzywinkski from Shore bank of Chicago. The Ford foundation was established in 1936 it is an independent nonprofit and nongovernmental organization which help in social change, the organization help to reduce poverty and help in human advancement worldwide by offering subsidies and loans to certain organizations. 2.2.4 Credit Union Mutual societies Grameen bank is a Nobel Prize winner corporation founded in 1983, its headquarter is situated in Dhaka in Bangladesh and the bank is known for its solidarity lending system or banking and is also known as banking to the poor. Solidarity lending is the foundation of microcredit. The word Grameen is derived means village in Bangladesh, the bank incorporates the 16 decisions which is recited by bank borrowers and which they shall abide to them. The 16 decisions comprises the four principles of Grameen bank which are Discipline, Courage, Unity, and Hard work, and the other 15 decisions are resumed as to improve their standard of living and there is the element of togetherness to do social activities to improve their way of living. These sixteen decisions have a positive impact on the inhabitants of Bangladesh where more children have joined school. The bank has different sources of funding; initially huge capital was obtained from donor agency at low rates. During the 1990s the bank has its bulk of capital from the Central bank of Bangladesh and recently from the sales of bonds subsidized by its government. In 1998 The bank make loan to poor people in the form of microcredit as a result of flood in Bangladesh, the repayment rate decreases but recovered afterwards, USD4.7 billions has been loaned in 2005and USD6 billion in 2008. Nowadays the bank has expand more and offers more loans to the poor and in 2006 it has up to 2100 branches in Bangladesh. Due to Grameens success more than 40 countries including the United States in 2008 where 12.6% of the population live below the poverty line have been inspired by the bank to make projects with the same perspective, only Africa which has lag behind. The World Bank has financed the projects. The bank is owned by the poor borrowers of the bank of which the majority are women as the borrowers own 94% of the equity and the remaining 6% is owned by the Government of Bangladesh. The bank has grown to a large extent between 2003-2007 in 2003 the numbers of borrowers have doubled and in October 2007 the number of clients was 7.34 Million of which 97% were women and had a staff of 24703, in 2468 branches over 80257 villages that is the branches have spread in more villages since they were situated in only 43681 villages in 2003 and the repayment rate. Since the banks start ed to operate it has USD6.55 billions as loans USD87 billion has been repaid and the bank claim repayment rate of 98.35% up from the 95% of 1998 but again the Wall Street journal in 2001claim that it doubted the 95% and the accounting standard used by Grameen bank. Grameen started to diversify in the 1980 where it develops into a multi facet group with profit and nonprofit group among which are Grameen fisheries foundation for fisheries project, Grameen Agriculture Foundation for irrigation project, Grameen fund and Grameen Trust.Grameen believe that the concept of giving charity will encourage charity whereas the concept of microcredit will help poor people to exit poverty and the bank invest in children education by providing scholarships and loans for higher education. Grameen Foundation PPI Microfinance in developed countries 2.3.3 Theoretical study of Microcredit Theoretical study According to Boudreaux and Cowen (2008) microcredit is a micro magic and makes the life of the poor becomes easier, it is an alternative to traditional lending of banks. Instead of giving charity to the poor, microcredit is a human way of providing finance to poor people as according to the Chinese proverb Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime, it is an investment in human capital. Microcredit is an innovation in the world of finance it forms part of microfinance, the concept did not exist before the seventies, and it is a small loan rarely exceeding USD200 and usually below USD50 made to the poor or people with low income with little or no collateral. Microcredit clients are those that are considered as near the poverty line, the loans allow micro entrepreneurs to generate an income for a better standard of living. Grameen bank based itself on three Cs namely Character that is the reliability of the people the Capacity to h andle funds and the Capital which is the assets of the borrower such as savings. Microcredit is gaining more credibility in the finance industry and many large organizations are developing microfinance programs for future growth although at the start many were pessimistic about the future of microcredit in the financial system. 50% of the population in many developing countries is self employed and these loans of three months to three years with small interest rates and no collateral help poor people to become financially independent and help to reduce poverty. The microcredit programs helps people to achieve high repayment rate even sometimes more than that of traditional banking because of the system of peer support. In the case of the Grameen bank where there are solidarity groups and it is also known as social capital and is composed of 5 members and each member is responsible for each other success and repayment, but are not guarantees or liable if members default. Nevertheless the members make sure that each one is taking its responsibility to make repayment this act as a motivating factor for the members. Sometimes in real life when a member of the group defaults the other four collaborates together and contribute to pay on behalf of the defaulting member. The microcredit system of Grameen bank is based on Trust and there is no conventional contract between the bank and the borrowers, but the borrowers must have a small account with the bank known as group fund which acts as an insurance in case of an emergency. Women account for 97% of the microcredit client of Grameen bank and this help to empower women as they get access to resources and have a say in decision making since they become micro entrepreneurs. Grameen bank has records of 98% repayment rate from women which is in contradiction with Wall street Journal which says that there is one fifth of the total loan of the bank is overdue but Grameen bank claims in turn that the standard of living of the poor has increased that is they are respecting the 16 decisions of the bank and are able to make a repayment of around 4USD per week. Empirical review of microcredit Grameen bank develop several program for the poor of which one of them is the struggling members program in 2003 which is different from the 5 group member borrowing it consists of distributing interest free loans to beggars in Bangladesh where the banking rules do not apply and where the repayment period is arbitrary for USD1.5 about 3.4 US cents and if they borrower default they are already covered under an insurance paid by the bank itself. This type of loan encouraged the beggars to generate an income by the sales of cheap items, there is a record shown in the microfinance summit 2006 that loans taken by beggars are about USD 833,150 and the repayment is USD 496,900 that is 59.64% repayment rate which according to me is quite encouraging since it is more half of the money loaned. Certain developed countries such as in Canada have try to used the Grameen model but the project has failed due to certain factors such as the risk profile of clients, no taste for joint liability that is the no solidarity between the borrowers, high overhead costs therefore the project does not stand without subsidies in Canada which is contrary to the USA where microcredit has been successful. Sometimes microcredit is subjected to problem such as opportunism and asymmetric information. The first Grameen branch has made a loan of $1.5 million in the USA among which was 600 women and the repayment was very high up to 99%. People took the loan to sell items such as flowers, jewelry clothes and Grameen bank remains unshaken while others collapsed during crisis. Despite the global recession, The President Barack Obama announced the creation of $100 million funds to lend as microcredit to the western hemisphere. Micro Saving Apart from microcredit the need of financial users is increasing, there is demand from 19 million potential savers to have access to micro saving services. They need services that are flexible and adapted to them. Traditionally savings is done by people at home or by normal banks at a high cost which was not encouraging to the poor. Microfinance has brought services such as savings to poor people. Savings help people to feel safer and more stable, and help poor people to manage their money conveniently. Micro saving consists of small deposits, terms and interest rate that is flexible to clients at the same time banks used the money to make loans to poor people. Credit Insurance In 2002 opportunity organization started to give micro insurance services. Its subsidiary MicroEnsure was the first institution offering micro insurance services and provide protection against many risks for the poor. Stakeholders and local insurance worked in collaboration with MicroEnsure to develop and match the needs of the poor. The insurance provided were affordable, they offered agricultural, medical, property and life policy providing a safety net in case of disasters with average premium of USD 1.5 for family with 5members. Medical policies covered even people already suffering from diseases and even those suffering from HIV viruses. Actually MicroEnsure is offering insurance in 5 countries to over 1million poor people and was one of the runner-ups of financial times in June 5 for sustainability award and receives a grant from The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to expand itself in other countries. Microcredit transfer Microcredit Summit The first microcredit summit was held at Washington D.C. on the 24 February 1997, 137 countries were present at the summit with 2900 participants. In the summit they launch a campaign to reach 100 million poorest families that is those people living below the poverty line, with those living with less than USD1.25 a day adjusted to the purchasing power parity (based on 2005 prices) all around the world within nine years especially to empower women as micro entrepreneurs. The objective was nearly achieved in 2005 and in November 2006 the campaign re-launched to 2015 with two new objectives was ensured that 175 millions poorest families especially women are obtaining credit for self employment and for business and financial services. The second objective is to ensure that 100 millions poorest familys worldwide increase to USD1 a day adjusted to the purchasing power parity from 1990 to 2015. The microcredit campaign is the project of the Educational fund from the USA an organization committed to end hunger and poverty around the world. The campaign group together people such as microcredit practitioners, donor agencies, international financial institutions, non -governmental organizations, advocates, and other people involved with microcredit for effective and efficient practices. In August 2008 the World Bank claim that approximately 280 million families live below the poverty line with less than USD1.25 daily. The four core themes of the summit are reaching the poorest, empowering women, building self sufficient and sustainable MFIs, ensuring that microfinance has a positive impact on the lives of the poor The forthcoming Microfinance Summit 2011 will be held in Valladolid, Spain, the summit is believed to improve the microfinance sector and to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. A hundred countries and over 2000 participants are expected in the summit. In the agenda there will be the presentation of new products, job creation with microfinance and best practices among other issues will addressed. Poverty It has been proved that microfinance is the tool to help poor family moved out of poverty and to contribute to the economy of a country. Studies have shown with the microcredit provided by Grameen bank in Bangladesh 48% of the families below the poverty line have exit from poverty. According to some studies with microcredit 5% of the poor could exit the poverty line each year as it is an investment in human capital and improve peoples life. Microcredit is an opportunity for the poor to realize their dreams. Employment Generation Microcredit helps in the generation of employment; therefore it helps in economic development and in a sustainable means of income. With the microcredit poor people are able to earn a living by selling low priced items or to even expand their businesses at the same time they become sustainable and create employment for other people .Microfinance is a mean of creating employment and improving the life of poor people. Women Microfinance more specifically microcredit is an instrument used for the empowerment of women it increase social welfare and enhances gender equity. Microcredit helps women to become economic actors in power. We have heard a lot about the role of women in microfinance, 94% of the borrowers of Grameen bank are women and 97% of the borrowers are owners in the equity of the bank, according to Rankin (2002) the reason behind this is because women invest more in the family than men because of their nurturing instincts and are more devoted towards their families. Women play a crucial role in the economic growth of a country by first improving their family life, their communities and countries. In the microfinance summit provisions are made for the poorest families around but especially for women as they form an important part of microfinance. Women are targeted because they are the one in the family to up bring the children and poverty of the women results in illiteracy of their chil dren and other social problems. Mohhamud Yunus (1999) explains that women are more willing to work harder to raise their children and to move their families out of poverty, whereas when a destitute father earns an income his priorities will more around himself than for his family. In 2005 Kofi Anan promote the year as the UN microfinance year for empowerment of women. Studies have shown that women are good income earner and that women have a high repayment rate. In Nepal with the Women empowerment program 68 % of the women are able to cater for the needs of the family by sending their children to school, buying and selling properties which normally was the duty of the husband. Access to microcredit has increase from 7.6 million in 1997 to 26.8 million in 2001 among which are 21 million women the access to loans enabled them to make economic decisions , to buy assets and resources and to become more independent. . We will look at two among many microcredit stories of women the first one is that of Janet Deval from Haiti who was an illiterate women with a hearing problem she had five children, her husband refused to pay the school fees but she knew that education was important for the children. Janet sold goods in Hinche and pay for her children schools on her own. She started to take literacy classes at Fonkoze a microcredit institution in Haiti. Afterwards Janet knew how to write her name and could things that she couldnt do before since she was never sent to school. Later she took a loan from Fonkoze to be able to expand her business at the market to be able to continue to send her children to school, without the microfinance institution Janet would have been unable to read and write and to even expand her business therefore she would have been able to educate her children. The second case is that of Anastacia Abella from the Philippines, she lived as a squatter in Manila, she lived with her four children in a shelter made from scrap, the village have frequent blackout therefore she decided to search for jar in the garbage to make lamps, after decorating the lamps, she sell 150 of them each day and make a small profit. She took a loan at Opportunity international and she was to make 300 lamps a day, the loan allows her to make greater profit and be able to improve her standard of living. Empirical review Social capital is an important component of microcredit it is used as a tool in development programmes. Social A study was carried out by Forbes Marshall Co .Ltd a well known company in Maharashtra, India as an initiative of CSR about the impact of social capital on social empowerment carried using primary data from 217 women all members of SHG by using random sampling.15 variables were used using Likert scale to know the perceptions of women about the microfinance programs. The conclusion of the study was that the social capital created help in women empowerment but that the organization must give appropriate support and policies to the social capital such as capacity building programmes to help decision making. Islamic microfinance Critics of microfinance Microfinance in Mauritius To coordinate the activities of Grameen Foundation, we have staff based at our headquarters in Washington, D.C., at the Grameen Technology Center in Seattle, Washington and in offices in Los Angeles, Ghana and the Philippines. Overseeing the staff is a Board of Directors. Our Grameen Foundation Advisory Council and our Board Committees and Councils nurture new ideas, innovations, strategic thinking and program development. Much of Grameen Foundations work is done by our network of volunteers who are committed to our mission, some of whom have been working in partnership with us for more than ten years. Alex Counts, President CEO Alex Counts is President and CEO of Grameen Foundation, a nonprofit organization focused on enabling the poor to escape poverty, using microfinance and technology. Counts founded Grameen Foundation and became its CEO in 1997, after having worked in microfinance and poverty reduction for 10 years. Since its modest beginnings, sparked by a $6,000 seed grant provided by Grameen Bank founder (and founding Grameen Foundation board member) Professor Muhammad Yunus, Grameen Foundation has grown to a leading international humanitarian organization with an annual budget of approximately $25 million. A Cornell University graduate, Counts commitment to poverty eradication deepened as a Fulbright scholar in Bangladesh, where he witnessed innovative poverty solutions being developed by Grameen Bank. He trained under Dr. Muhammad Yunus, the founder and managing director of Grameen Bank, and co-recipient of the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize. Counts has propelled Grameen Foundations philosophy through his writings, including Small Loans, Big Dreams: How Nobel Prize Winner Muhammad Yunus and Microfinance Are Changing the World. Counts has also been published in The Washington Post, the International Herald Tribune, the Stanford Social Innovation Review, The Miami Herald, The Christian Science Monitor and elsewhere. In 2007 he received the Distinguished Alumni Award from Horace Mann School. Counts chairs the Fonkoze USA board of directors and is the immediate past chair of Project Enterprises board. He sits on the Advisory Council of the Center for Financial Inclusion, the Advisory Board of the ThinkGlobal Arts Foundation, and he co-chairs the Microenterprise Coalition. He serves on the Board of Directors of two social businesses: Grameen-Jameel Pan-Arab Microfinance Ltd. and YouChange PuRong Information Advisory Co. Ltd., which promote microfinance and related efforts in the Arab World and China respectively. Before leading Grameen Foundation, Counts served as the legislative director of RESULTS and as a regional project manager for CARE-Bangladesh. He speaks fluent Bengali and lives in Washington, DC, with his wife, Emily, and their cat, Seymour. Top Peter Bladin, Executive Vice President, Programs and Regions Peter Bladin is Executive Vice President of Programs and Regions at Grameen Foundation, and the Founding Director of the Grameen Foundation Technology Center. Under his leadership, the Technology Center has led the microfinance industry in driving relevant and appropriate technology innovation, creating information and communications initiatives that benefit the worlds poorest. Peter was a founding member of the MTN-Village Phone board, the first public-private partnership to extend telecommunications access to the rural poor. He is a frequent speaker at international telecommunication and microfinance conferences, and is an Executive Board Member of the International Telecommunications Union Connect the World initiative. Peter is also actively involved with various Seattle-based non-profits, including Global Partnerships and Social Venture Partners. Before joining Grameen Foundation, Peter worked for Microsoft for more than 10 years, managing various projects and departments during his tenure. He has a degree in Mathematics from the University of Uppsala, Sweden. Top Jennifer Meehan, CEO, Asia Region Jennifer Meehan joined Grameen Foundation in February 2005 as the founding Director of the Capital Markets Group, during which time she led the development and launch of the Growth Guarantees product. She subsequently led Grameen Foundations strategic planning process before taking on her current role in January 2009. She is based in Hong Kong. Jennifer has lived in Asia Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Japan, and China since 1996. She started her career in the formal financial sector with Chase Manhattan Bank (now JP Morgan Chase), but made the transition to microfinance following the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Prior to joining Grameen Foundation, she worked extensively with poverty-focused MFIs throughout Asia including CASHPOR, the Asian network of Grameen Bank Replicators, on financial management, business planning and financing. She has also consulted for Calvert Social Investment Foundation, among others, and published a number of articles. She was a founding investor and, until October 2007, served on the Investment Committee of the Aavishkaar India Micro Venture Capital Fund. Jennifer graduated summa cum laude, Phi Beta Kappa with a B.A. in International Affairs from George Washington University. Top Alberto Solano, CEO, Americas Alberto Solano joined Grameen Foundation in October 2009 and provides leadership and management oversight for our portfolio and activities across the Americas. He also serves as our senior representative in the region. He has more than 10 years experience in microfinance, principally in Latin America, and most recently was the Latin America Program Director for Global Partnerships. He previously worked with the Central American Bank for Economic Integrations microfinance and technical assistance programs in Honduras, and ran his own consulting company specializing in sustainable development and microfinance. Top Julia Soyars, General Counsel and Assistant Corporate Secretary Julia Soyars joined Grameen Foundation in March 2005 and started the Grameen Foundation legal department. After working five years in energy and government contracting law and litigation at Pillsbury, Madison and Sutro in Washington, Julia joined the legal department at The American National Red Cross, where she spent eleven years handling domestic and international transactions. Julia is a founding member of the Microfinance Council of Counsels and is a member of the District of Columbia Bar. Julia holds a JD Magna Cum Laude from Syracuse University. Top Joshua Tripp, Chief Financial Officer Joshua Tripp is Grameen Foundations Chief Financial Officer. Joshua joined Grameen in 2007 after spending seven years at Community Wealth Ventures (CWV), most recently as a Vice President. In his time at CWV, Joshua worked with dozens of innovative nonprofit organizations, helping them to assess, plan and launch for-profit business ventures to increase their sustainability. He became an expert in financial planning and capitalization of social enterprises, and was a presenter at several industry conferences and seminars. Before joining CWV, Joshua was a Project Manager for GS Telecom, a start-up satellite telecommunications company in Ghana. Prior to GS Telecom, Joshua worked in the investment banking division of Deutsche Bank, where he worked on a variety of public equity financings, private placements and merger and acquisition transactions in the technology industry. Joshua has a BA in Economics from Williams College and an MBA from the George Washington University School of Busin ess. Top Sandra Adams, Vice President, External Affairs Sandra Adams brings three decades of nonprofit development, communications and event marketing experience to Grameen Foundation. Throughout her career her focus has been on improving the status of women in positions with the AAUW Educational Foundation, American Nurses Association, and National Breast Cancer Coalition and on environmental advocacy through her work with the National Parks Conservation Association and The Wilderness Society. An avid student and proponent of philanthropy, she was elected Chair of the Association of Fundraising Professionals national board of directors, served as President of their Washington, DC chapter and is one of only 150 people to have achieved the Advanced Certified Fundraising Executive credential. She was named Washingtons Outstanding Fund Raising Executive of the Year in 1994. Sandra has served on the boards of EarthShare and CFRE International. She holds a Bachelors degree from Mercyhurst College, a Masters from the University of Massachusetts -Amherst and a certificate in Teaching English as a Second Language from Georgetown University. Top Camilla Nestor, Vice President of Microfinance Programs Camilla Nestor joined Grameen Foundation in August 2005 and previously served as Growth Guarantees Manager and Director of the Capital Management and Advisory Center. She was appointed Vice President for Microfinance in April 2009. She has 14 years of experience in microfinance and commercial banking. Before joining Grameen Foundation, she worked in Citigroups Structured Corporate Finance Department where she executed credit-enhanced debt financings for emerging markets firms in Africa, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. Prior to joining Citi, she spent five years on the ground in Southeast Asia, the Balkans, and Africa working with microfinance institutions on start-up, new product development, and capital raising. Camilla holds an MBA and a masters degree in International Affairs from Columbia University and a bachelors degree in Political Science and International Relations from Colorado College. She speaks Bahasa Indonesia and is conversant in French. Top David Edelstein, Vice President of Technology Programs, and Director of the Grameen Foundation Technology Center David Edelstein is Director of the Grameen Foundation Technology Center and Vice President of Technology Programs at Grameen Foundation. As the leader of Grameen Foundations work in technology, he guides programs that create innovative and sustainable approaches to employing technology for the benefit of the worlds poor. This includes efforts to develop services that can be accessed on widely available mobile phones, in domains such as health and agriculture, to improve lives and livelihoods. It also encompasses efforts in technology for microfinance, including an open-source software initiative designed to accelerate the growth of microfinance institutions (Mifos) and efforts to enable the poor to transfer funds using mobile phones. Before joining Grameen Foundation, David spent three years at Microsoft, designing busine

The Presentation of the Inspector in An Inspector Calls :: J.B. Priestley An Inspector Calls Plays Essays

The Presentation of the Inspector in An Inspector Calls J.B. Priestley was born in Yorkshire on 13th September 1894. He gained his writing experience in the years before the war 1911-1914; he did not work among professional writers; he was around â€Å"people who read a great deal, cared a lot for at least one of the arts, and preferred a real talk and hot arguments to social chit-chat.† Despite having grown up into his father’s circle of socialist friends, he found himself joining in in their political discussions/arguments. It was around this time that Priestley started to write in his front attic bedroom. At the age of twenty, and at the outbreak of war, in 1914, he joined the infantry. He left in 1919, having seen active front-line service in France and having narrowly escaped being killed when a German shell exploded three yards away from him and having been a victim of a gas-attack. In â€Å"An Inspector Calls†, Priestley uses a lot of his political views in the Inspectors speeches by using him as a kind of a mouthpiece for his socialism. The play was written in 1946; however it was set in 1912, just before the outbreak of WWI. This was a new era when people were no longer willing to accept the poverty or the class system that had gone before. Priestley strongly believed that everyone had some responsibility for others in society and not just their own welfare. He realised that change was coming and explores this theme in his play. Priestley believed that events are repeated over again unless people face up to their past activities, like Eric and Sheila do, and only this can bring about a positive and equal change in society. At the start of the play, Act 1, Mr Birling is portrayed to the audience as quite a self confident and opinionated person who doesn’t believe in â€Å"collective responsibility†. He feels he belongs to a social class that makes him superior and somewhat divorced from other members of society. He has no concept of helping, or being responsible for others. This is shown in Act 1 when he is with the family and his daughter’s new fiancà ©, Gerald Croft, celebrating their engagement. He made a few speeches that give the audience a bad view of him and make him look arrogant and ignorant. â€Å"†¦Just because the Kaiser makes a speech or two†¦Everything to loose with war, and nothing to gain.† And to Eric, â€Å"†¦And I say there isn’t a chance of war†¦in a world that’ll have forgotten all these Capital versus Labour agitations and all these silly little war scares.

Computer Use in Early Childhood Education Essay

Abstract The importance of the child’s development in early years of education has reached the stage where it becomes critical that learning programs becomes a global issue. Understanding changes and undertaking practice is fundamental in student learning. The purpose of this article is to increase our perception on the different effects of using computer technology in early childhood setting. In answering the question ‘What is the purpose of education? I started at that time from the observation that man lives in a world of objects which influence him and which he wishes to influence, and so he must know these objects in their characteristics, their essence and their relation to one another and to mankind. Friedrich Froebel Keywords : Early Childhood, Computer, Technology Education, Curriculum Introduction Throughout educational history, world philosophers have wrestled with understanding the myriad of questions and problems surrounding the education of society’s children. Historically, many early childhood educators supported the idea that children should be trained as soon as possible to become productive members of the larger society so that the cultural heritage of the society could be preserved from generation to generation; this cultural imposition theory has been prevalent throughout the educational history of the world (Staff, 1998. Early Years of Education Early Childhood Education is the term commonly used to describe the formal teaching and care of young children by people other than their family or in settings outside of the home. The developmental definition of early childhood education spans the human life from birth to age eight. However, typically early childhood education covers the period from birth to when a child starts school and this can be as early as five years of age as in New Zealand. This time period is widely considered the most vulnerable and crucial stage of a person’s life. The early years of childhood are receiving increased public attention around the world. Issues on providing quality service and ensuring a good foundation for lifelong learning is generating a new interest in the academic community by adapting different theoretical perspective, pedagogy and philosophy. There are several key components to understanding how young children learn, and therefore how they need to be taught. In New Zealand, the process of creating the early childhood curriculum was inspired by the evidence of not only a bi cultural society but a multi cultural and multi racial society. CurriculumCurriculum is defined in Te Wha? riki as ‘†¦ the sum total of the experiences, activities and events, whether direct or indirect, which occur within an environment designed to foster children’s learning and development’ (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 10 cited in Nutall, 2003). This definition of curriculum as ‘everything that happens’ is acknowledged in the curriculum theory literature (e. g. Cornbleth, 1990 cited in Nutall, 2003) and it is a description that resonates with the holistic, child-centred philosophy of early childhood education in New Zealand. The central expectation of Te Wha? riki is that early childhood centres and services will articulate ‘their’ curriculum in a conscious, culturally situated way. (Nutall, 2003). The implementation of Te Wha? riki, which was inspired by The Socio Cultural Constructivism principle of Vygotzsky, introduced the early childhood teachers in New Zealand to the most recent curriculum tradition. One of the reasons socio-cultural approaches resonate with teachers in childcare centres is the way in which children are understood to be learning through their experiences in the centre, including routine happenings such as play and mealtimes. (Nutall, 2003) Within this pedagogy, both the teachers and students are understood to be engaged in a process of actively constructing knowledge, through their interactions with time, space, objects and people. Children learn through collaboration with adults and peers, through guided participation and observation of others, as well as through individual exploration and reflection. There are five different developmental domains of children which all relate to each other. They are easily referred to as the SPICE of life: Social – Refers mostly to the ability to form attachments, play with others, co-operation and sharing, and being able to create lasting relationships with others. Physical – Development of Fine (small) and Gross (large) Motor Skills. Intellectual – The process of making sense of the world around them. Creative – The development of special abilities creating talents. Music, Art, Writing, Reading, and Singing are all ways for creative development to take place. Emotional – Development of self-awareness, self-confidence, and coping with feelings as well as understanding them. http://www. teachingexpertise. com/articles/computers-and-early-years-1124 According to Yelland (1999), Educators beliefs such as Montessori, Isaacs, Froebel, and Steiner, has led to early childhood programs that are characterized by their adherence to such traditional principles, manifested in unstructured environments, informal contexts, and learning through active exploration and play. Indeed, early pioneers such as Montessori advocated relatively structured learning opportunities, whereas Froebel’s views supported a less formal structure. However, both Froebel and Montessori seemed to agree that children learned most effectively from self-directed activities that gave them a high level of empowerment and ownership. Technology Education Technology education all over the world is evolving dramatically in a very fast phase as international academic institutions explore the implication of their present status and the rate they are progressing as compared to other developed countries. It is quite safe to say that, it is the brewing competition over the magnitude of the technology education, which comprises the curriculum that is becoming the main catalyst to these rapid changes. This notion could set the trend on how Early Childhood Curriculum should be designed and be implemented. What should be the content of this curriculum to help the children be prepared for technology education? Is the integration of technological tools beneficial to the learning outcomes of the students? Are computers developmentally appropriate to early childhood students?. Introduction of these devices and in some cases integration of the use of the technology in the existing curriculum has been a massive ground for global arguments. What brought this massive revolution to this day’s education is coherent to how fast the world is changing. Change is inevitable and sometimes predictable as it may seem, most of us will still be caught unaware and mislaid. As members of the community everyone takes part in the development of tomorrow’s citizens. The early childhood sector has been heavily influenced by particular views of child development and how children learn. Such views are often based on developmental psychology and seek to develop practices that are developmentally appropriate (Hirsh, 2004, cited in Zevenbergen & Logan , 2008) The author believed that whether traditional or technology education, students’ experiences, social influence, and development are the main considerations on the part of the educators/teachers approach in delivering knowledge and evaluating learning outcomes. There have been several studies and articles (Cordes & Miller, 2000; Haugland, 2000; Plotz, 2007) on arguments about the content of technology in early childhood, or the appropriate age to expose children to computers. Regardless what the parents thoughts are, whether or not they choose to expose their children to computers, eventually they will be introduced to technology when they enter school. To this day it is still uncertain on whether or not extensive use of computers for young people could be detrimental to their being, physically, socially and intellectually to say the least. What is certain is that technology is at hand and here to stay. Computers are increasingly present in early childhood education settings. Toward the end of the 1980s, only one-fourth of licensed pre schools had computers. Today almost every preschool has a computer, with the ratio of computers to students changing from 1:125 in 1984 to 1:22 in 1990 to 1:10 in 1997. This last ratio matches the minimum ratio that is favourable to social interaction (Clements and Nastasi 1993; Coley et al. 1997). In the event that the use of this technology could be measured in education settings, what are we to assume or expect in the different household settings. No one knows the exact number of computers in each and every particular household. Are Computers Developmentally Appropriate? There are many researchers, organizations, and other programs that recognize the benefits of using computers with young children. One major supporter of children and technology is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). They created a lengthy position statement on Technology and Young children that states, â€Å"The potential benefits of technology for young children’s learning and development are well documented† (1996). Susan Haugland, a professor of child development and president of K. I. D. S. & Computers, Inc. , has done research and recently published an article about the benefits of technology called, â€Å"Computers and Young Children. † In this article, Susan states that an appropriate age to introduce children to computers is at age 3. She also goes on to state that, â€Å" children 3 and 4 years of age are developmentally ready to explore computers, and most early childhood educators see the computer centre as a valuable activity centre for learning. Children this age are developmentally within Piaget’s preoperational stage. This means they are concrete learners who are very interested in using newly learned symbolic representation – speaking, writing, drawing (including maps and geometric figures) and using numbers. Children this age are extremely active and mobile. They often have difficulty sitting still; they need frequent changes in learning modalities; and they want a variety of physical experiences involving dance, physical play, climbing and sports. Pre operational children are also are continuing their mastery of language, and exploring various facets of social behavior. Another large organization that supports technology in early childhood education is NETC (Northwest Educational Technology Consortium). They created a resource website for educators and providers called, Early Connections: Technology in Early Childhood Education. This website offers information on how to implement technology into child care centres, preschools, kindergarten, primary grades, and in before/ after school programs. They also offer suggestions on classroom arrangement, software selection, health & safety, hardware, and other resources. However, I think the most valuable information they offer is how technology is linked to learning and the curriculum. They state that one of the main benefits of computer use is because it enhances the five development domains: social and emotional, language, motor, and cognitive skills (Early Connections, â€Å"Learning and Development,† n.d. ). Clearly many of these developmental needs match up well with appropriate use of technology in the classroom, especially exploration, manipulation of symbolic representation, matching alternative learning styles, and quickly changing learning modalities that individual students can control and pace to meet their individual needs. It is also a very powerful tool for students with specific learning disabilities (Wardle,1999). If the goal for a certain age child is to learn to write personal journals, then the computer can naturally support that through writing software, digital cameras, and other methods. A science goal that requires learning the solar system can be augmented by using specific CD ROMS and accessing web sites. Similarly, studying extinct and endangered animals becomes more real and educational through the use of specific software and web sites. Lee and O’Rourke (2006), reported an Australian project on ICT use in Early Childhood setting, they discussed that teachers experimented with a range of activities and, in keeping with Piagetian perspectives of early development and learning, attempted to connect concrete experiences with those experiences children accessed on the computer. An example of this is the work done in one early childhood centre with the software ‘Millie’s Math House: Build-A-Bug’. The children created a ‘critter’ on the software and then recreated it in 3D using playdough, matchsticks and other collage materials. Making a connection between the image and the object was a powerful tool for engaging reluctant learners and the teacher was encouraged by the student response to the experience. Another example of this type of experience was developed by a teacher in a rural pre-school centre who used the program ‘Sammy’s Science House: Workshop’ to design, make and appraise a toy or machine. The children were invited to design a machine using the software and to describe what its function was. The teacher suggested that some children might like to build the machine out of materials of their choice. The use of computers in a fully integrated classroom is endless. Software can be used to assist not only the learners but the teachers as well in so many ways. Although research has proven many beneficial reasons to include technology in early childhood programs, there are many who believe that computers are not appropriate and could have harmful effects on young children. Jane Healy, an educational psychologist, wrote a book called, Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children’s Minds- for Better and Worse (1998), in the book she states that children should be 7 before introducing them to computers due to the harmful effects of computer use on their development. Her view is one that is shared with another large organization, The Alliance for Childhood. The Alliance for Childhood published a large report, Fool’s Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood, which claims â€Å"computers can have damaging consequences for children under age 7 in terms of their health, social relationships, and intellectual development† (Cordes & Miller, 2000, pg. 3). In this report they stated that, â€Å"Computers in childhood may expose children to the risk of a broad range of developmental setbacks† (Cordes & Miller, 2000, pg.3). A wide array of experts release a statement about the ways computers are reshaping children’s lives, at home and at school, in profound and unexpected ways. They stress that the use of technology is a distraction from the urgent social and educational needs of the low income children. And concludes with the following statement, â€Å"Those who place their faith in technology to solve the problems of education should look more deeply into the needs of children†. The renewal of education requires personal attention to students from good teachers and active parents, strongly supported by their communities. It requires commitment to developmentally appropriate education and attention to the full range of children’s real, low-tech needs — physical, emotional, and social, as well as cognitive† (The Alliance for Childhood, 2000. ) While both views provide compelling arguments, one can not avoid the obvious fact that technology will continue to evolve and will become a more significant part of the daily life. Use of technology in the early childhood program must not be a goal unto itself: the purpose is not to teach children how to use computers; they can do this as they get older, just as they can learn to drive a car later in their lives (Wardle, 1999). Appropriate use of technology in the classroom is to expand, enrich, implement, individualize, differentiate, and extend the overall curriculum. Computers are not to replace physical play, outdoor exploration of the community and of nature; art, music and dance; learning specific social skills and moral values, and experiencing diversity in a myriad of ways. Common sense suggests that we consider the potential harm, as well as the promised benefits, of this change and not rush forward with computer usage in childhood. As an educator we always want the best learning outcome for our students, and to extensively use whatever possible ways to achieve this goal. The only true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situations in which he finds himself. (James, 2005) Teachers’ Perception on the use of Computer Technology inside the classroom. One more compelling issue as regards to the use of technology in early years of education is the preparedness of the early childhood teachers in the use of technology inside their classrooms. Hsiac (2003) stated that the most important aspect of good early childhood program is its teacher, as classrooms practices are influenced by teachers’ beliefs. May (1997, 2000) has traced this rich heritage of multiple ideological, theoretical and pragmatic influences, showing how each successive trend has challenged early childhood teachers to re-examine their practice. (Cited in Nutall, 2003) Fact is not all early childhood teachers embraces the idea of technology education, some of them are faced with ethical dilemma in the use of information technology, (Myers & Miller 1996). According to Morrison (2007) there are, â€Å"three challenges confronting early childhood teachers when implementing effective programs using technology in their instruction: 1. ) Their own personal acceptance of technology, 2. ) Confidence that technology has a positive influence on children, and 3. ) Decisions about how to use technology in early childhood programs and classrooms† (pg.383). It’s important for teachers to accept technology and learn how to use it effectively. (cited in Plotz, 2007). Nutall’s (2003) research suggests to explore some provisions of frequent opportunities for teachers to make explicit their knowledge and assumptions about their role. As well as ideas about how children learn through the various aspects of their daily life. Furthermore, such research must take into account the way in which teachers in early childhood constantly teach each other about the deeply inter subjective and interpretive task of working with very young children. Aside from personal struggle there were also some issues being raised in accordance with the role of early childhood teachers in technology education. Gibbons (2006) mention some tensions between the early childhood educators and the government sector which in becoming a challenge for teachers and in one way or another becomes one of the reason for the derail of the their readiness and compliance of the task. Teachers as well as student possessed certain individuality; the trust that teachers should adjust to their student’s ability, will not be the same as students will adjust to their teachers ability. As teachers we are given the higher responsibility of being, according to Vygotzsky, the more knowledgeable other. Complex as it may be or to others simple as it may seem, early childhood teachers should take a step ahead to deliver this overwhelming educational demand. It’s important for teachers to accept technology and learn how to use it effectively. Morrison (2007) offers these guidelines for educators (pg. 384): Educate yourself on the potential benefits of computers and technology. Be willing to try new ways of using technology to help your children learn new knowledge and skills. Collaborate with colleagues in your school and school district to explore ways to use technology. Collaborate with parents and community members, many of whom have skills that you can use and apply. It is also important for teachers to have a positive attitude toward technology to create an appropriate classroom environment. Children will have a difficult time embracing technology if their teacher doesn’t approach the situation with a positive outlook. Summary and Conclusion Endless as it may seem, the ongoing issue of Information and Communication Technology in Early Childhood Education is giving the community of education a more clear and vivid guidelines on the process of creating, conceptualising and implementing policies and standards suitable to each and every environment. Immense concerns coming from diversity of culture and practice takes place. Analysing the impact of using technology in early childhood classrooms have established a variety of implications on different members of the academic community. Teachers, students, policy makers, writers and researchers, centre, and of course the ministry have presented diverse opinions and views on different aspects over this highly arguable issue. Because of the ongoing conflict of interests, the government of New Zealand particularly the Ministry of Education have gone through a major curriculum reforms leading to the development of a national technology curriculum. Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995) became mandatory for all schools in February 1999. The development of the national technology education policy and the way in which the curriculum was developed, was described in an article by Jones(2003). This curriculum area will be compulsory for all students from years 1–10. Aside from Jones (2003), the evidence of issue concerning the integration of Information Technology in Early Childhood Education curriculum is becoming countless Gibbons (2006), Compton & Hardwood (2005), Zebenbergen & Logan (2008), Walters & Fehring (2009), Mawson (2007) to cite a few, and of course publications from the Ministry of Education (1993), (1995) and (1996) is as substantial. Recent development in Early Childhood Education offers exciting opportunities for exploration on how these technological tools will continue to improve children’s learning development and provides new stage to discover different aspects of teachers role. The challenge for parents and educators is to maintain a balance on the possible huge and massive effect of this ongoing evolution in technology education. * draft journal article for International Journal for Early Years References Clements, D. H. , and Nastasi, B. K. (1992). Computers and early childhood education. In Advances in school psychology: Preschool and early childhood treatment directions, eds. M. Gettinger, S. N. Elliot and T. R. Kratochwill, 187–246. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Clements, D. H. & Nastasi, B. K. (1993). Electronic media and early childhood education. In Handbook of research on the education of young children, ed. B. Spodek, 251–275. New York Cordes, C. & Miller, E. (2000). Fool’s Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood Alliance for Childhood. Retrieved April 2, 2011, http://www. allianceforchildhood. net/ Compton , V. & Hartwood,C. (2005) Progression in Technology Education in New Zealand Components of Practice as a Way Forward, International Journal of Technology and Design Education Genishi, C. , McCollum, P. , and Strand, E. B. (1985). Research currents: The interactional richness of children’s computer use. Language Arts, 62(5): 526–532. Gibbons, A. N. , (2006) The politics of technology in early childhood in Aotearoa/New Zealand Fitting early childhood educators in the ICT grid, Australian Journal of Early Childhood 31. No. 4 Haugland, S. (2000). Computers and Young Children. ERIC Digest. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from http://ceep. crc. uiuc. edu/ Hsiac, W. (2003), Comparison of Montessori and Non Montessori Teachers beliefs about Developmentally appropriate practice in pre school, Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley James, 2005 retrieved from http://www. wilderdom. com/experiential/JohnDeweyQuotes. html Jones, A. 2003, The Development of a National Curriculum in Technology for New Zealand, International Journal of Technology and Design Education 13, 83–99 Lee, L.& O’Rourke,M. (2006) Information and Communication Technologies: Transforming views in literacies in early childhood setting, Early years, Vol 26,p 49-62 Marrison B. (2007), Factors affecting learning in technology in the early years, at school, Intl Journal of Technology and Design Education May, H. (1997) The Discovery of Early Childhood: the development of services for the care and education of veryyoung children, mid eighteenth century Europe to mid twentieth century New Zealand (Auckland, Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books/NZCER). May, H.(2000) Politics in the Playground: the world of early childhood in postwar New Zealand Wellington, Bridget Williams Books/NZCER). Ministry of Education, (1996) Te Wha? riki. He Wha? riki Ma? tauranga mo? nga? Mokopuna o Aotearoa: early childhood curriculum (Wellington, Learning Media). Ministry of Education ,(1998) Quality in Action. Te Mahi Whai Hua: implementing the Revised Statement of Desirable Objectives and Practices in New Zealand early childhood services (Wellington, Learning Media) Ministry of Education, (1993b), Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Draft),( Learning Media, Wellington). Ministry of Education: (1995), Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum, (Learning Media Wellington). Ministry of Education, (2005) Foundations for Discovery) p. 17 Ministry of Education, (2000) The Quality Journey. He Haerenga Whai Hua: improving in Early childhood services (Wellington, Learning Media) Ministry of Education, (2002), Pathways to the Future: Nga? Huarahi Arataki: a 10-year strategic plan for early childhood education (Wellington, Ministry of Education). Muller, A. A. , and Perlmutter, M. 1985. Preschool children’s problem -solving interactions at computers and jigsaw puzzles. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 6: 173–186. National Association of the Education of Young Children. (April 1996). Technology and Young Children- Ages 3 through 8. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from http://www. naeyc. org/about/positions/pdf/PSTECH98. PDF Nutall, J. (2003), Influences on the Co-construction of the Teacher Role in Early Childhood Curriculum some examples from a New Zealand childcare centre, International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2003 pp24-39. Papert, S. ,(1980). Teaching children thinking: Teaching children to be mathematicians vs. teaching about mathematics. In The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee, ed. Plotz, K. , (2007), Integrating Technology into Early Childhood Classroom, Retrieved August 2010 from http://education. csm. edu/students/kplotz/position_paper. htm Staff, 1998, retrieved from http://froebelweb. tripod. com/web2002. html The Alliance for Childhood 2000) retrieved May 2011 (http://drupal6. allianceforchildhood. org/computer_position_statement) Wardle, F. 1999. Retrieved May 2011 http://www. earlychildhoodnews. com/ Walters , M & Fehring H. , (2008) An investigation of the incorporation of Information and Communication Technology and thinking skills with Year 1 and 2 students, Australian Australian Journal of Early Childhood Journal of Language and Literacy Vol 32, No. 3pp 258-272 Weir, S. , Russell, S. J. , and Valente, J. A. (1982). Logo: An approach to educating disabled children BYTE, 7: 342–360. Wyett, J. (1999), John Dewey and Earl Kelly : Giants in Democratic Education, Education Vol. 119, No. 1, pg 151-174 Yelland, N, (1999), Technology as Play, Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 26, No. 4 Zevenbergen R. & Logan, H. (2008) Computer Use by Preschool children. 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Morality in war Essay

Is war ever moral? I feel that War is a necessary part of life. Sometimes force is the only way to defend yourself or others. We are all equals, and It is immoral to take the life of anyone, but it is also immoral to let the life of anyone be taken. We have a responsibility to help each other because cooperation is the only way the human race can survive; we also have a right to defend ourselves. This means that if someone else is threatening you or anothers life, and you are capable of helping, you have an obligation to protect yourself or them. Lethal force will never be moral, but what if it’s the only way to protect someone? Let’s say that an attacker has broken into your house and is holding a gun to you and your family. You also have a gun pointed at the assailant. In this hypothetical situation we must assume that the only way to save your family is to kill the attacker. You must make a choice to kill the attacker or let the attacker kill you and your family. Both options are immoral, so one has to ask if it’s more immoral to kill the attacker, or to let the attacker kill your family? The obvious choice to me is to kill the assailant. I feel this is the right choice because of two reasons. One, our responsibility to protect ourselves and our family is larger than the responsibility to not do harm to another. The second reason has to do with the proportion of damage. The attacker would be doing more harm in killing my family and me then I would be doing in killing him. This example allows us to see, on a small scale, when lethal force is necessary. Things get more complicated when we look at entire countries rather than just one family, but my view point remains the same. Lethal force is only permitted when it is the only option to defend yourself or others. War is necessary because people sometimes make immoral decisions that put others in a position where there is no other option, but is war ever moral? Killing is always immoral, and killing is part of war, so parts of war are immoral, but does this mean war is inherently immoral? Sometimes it is the least immoral choice; this makes it the most moral choice, so it is sometime moral. I believe that many of the wars we have had have been immoral. I don’t think that the United States has been justified in it’s actions every time. â€Å"It is alarming that military intervention in internal conflicts in foreign countries has become commonplace for the United States. † – Vladimir Putin. I feel that it is in part due to the classical â€Å"male† approach to ethics which focuses on â€Å"independence, autonomy, intellect, will, wariness, hierarchy, domination, culture, transcendence, product, asceticism, war, and death,† Jaggar, â€Å"Feminist Ethics,† 1992 One can see that these characteristics would allow for war to be more often morally acceptable. A â€Å"feminist† approach to ethics would focus more on â€Å"interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body, trust, absence of hierarchy, nature, immanence, process, joy, peace, and life. †Jaggar, â€Å"Feminist Ethics,† 1992 These characteristics allow for a more peaceful world. The Syrian regime was accused of using chemical weapons against it’s own people in september of 2013. The weapon of mass destruction â€Å"Sarin† may have been used, and this action is against international law. The United states felt obligated to step in and punish the Syrian Government for this because they felt it was in the worlds best interest to not let these atrocities go unpunished. It could be more dangerous to let them get away with it because international law could fall apart and the world could turn to anarchy if nothing is done to punish wrong behavior. This being said, what is the best course of action to punish the Syrian government if they did infact use this weapon? Military action was debated, and President Obama was willing to attack if necessary, but I feel this is very dangerous. If the United States were to attack the Syrian government without UN approval It could have the same effect as doing nothing. This is because the united states would also be breaking international law, and this could also cause the UN to fall apart. If strong countries like the US bypass UN approval on military actions then International law means nothing. â€Å"The world reacts by asking: if you cannot count on international law, then you must find other ways to ensure your security. Thus a growing number of countries seek to acquire weapons of mass destruction. This is logical: if you have the bomb, no one will touch you. † -Vladimir Putin. In addition, military action would not be morally acceptable in this situation because it would not be in self defense; it would be an act of aggression causing more harm than good. A diplomatic approach would be a step in the right direction for this particular situation. This real life situation allows us to see how we can judge the morality of an action on a larger scale. In conclusion, war can be moral, but it is only a strategy to attain peace and safety for a group. All other options should be explored before war can be considered; this is because war involves some of the most immoral actions possible; the killing of others. â€Å"Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. †- Ernest Hemingway http://www. brainyquote. com/quotes/quotes/e/ernesthemi108407. html#zB7XwPTRbCpbv7my. 99 http://www. nytimes. com/2013/09/12/opinion/putin-plea-for-caution-from-russia-on-syria. html? _r=0.